'Misr' The Arab Republic of Egypt

The richness and diversity of Egypt's cultural heritage has always caused some tension. This is true today and places the Government of President Mubarak in a delicate situation.(1) As we have seen, the geographical and political position of Egypt remains critical for the world. Therefore, it is vital to keep a balance between all the pressures from both within and outside of the country. Throughout the 1990s Egypt continued to play an important role in Middle Eastern peace negotiations and no doubt will continue to do so in this new millennium.

Despite the refinement and high intellectual reputation of Islam in Egypt, many ordinary and very devout Muslims practice a simpler form of their faith. This 'popular Islam' has developed over the years and is based on an oral tradition, the prayers, and the study and memorising of the Koran. In some areas Islam incorporates elements from traditional religion and other practices and has given rise to the development of cults and sects. There can even be differences in the way men and women practice Islam due to the separation of roles in the civil and mosque life.

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the Ulama had an influential role in the Muslim community which is rooted in history. (2) Various Governments tried to limit their power as they attempted to secularise the state and establish a civil bureaucracy that took away many responsibilities from the Ulama. An example of this is when, after the '1952 Revolution' and independence, the Government began to appoint officials to the mosques and madrassa (Koranic-religious schools). This was also done when the Al-Azhar University was reformed by the Government and modern faculties introduced in 1961. Until then the Department heads had been the orthodox Ulama.

The Ulama's position gradually became more precarious with the resurgence of 'Islamic activism' in the 1970s and 1980s. They were caught between their dual religious-secular role, in collaboration with the Government, and the beliefs of the 'Islamists' who wanted to purify the country according to Islamic principles. During this time the majority of Ulama were moderate and, while wanting the country's legal code to be Islamic, they condemned the violence used by the 'Islamist'.

Islam - the 'State Religion'

According to the Constitution of 1971 Islam is Egypt's 'State Religion'. (3) The Minister for Religious Heritage (Waqf) and the Mufti both represent 'Official Islam' in Egypt. During the last two decades the Government has given Islam financial support. This has aided the building of mosques, training leaders and in printing copies of the Koran. In 1999 the Government gave £E40 million towards the restoration of the Al-Azhar University.

In c. 969 the Fatimid Dynasty established the Al-Azhar as a mosque-school to teach Shiite theology and it is central to Islam in Egypt. It is claimed to be the world's oldest university. (4) During the reign of Salah ad Din ibn Ayyub (Saladin, 1169-1193) the University changed from Shiite to Sunni Islam as Saladin developed the madrassa system. The Al-Azhar is probably the most influential centre of Islam in the world and adherents of the Sunni tradition refer to it on matters concerning their faith.

The actual University has fifty-five colleges with 180,000 Egyptian students and 10,000 foreign students. There are about 5,000 schools affiliated to it in Egypt and fifty 'Azhar' institutes in Africa, Asia and the former Soviet Union. The 'Da-wa' faculty (Islamic Mission) trains missionaries and teachers from all over the world. Imams and lecturers from the University also travel the world. It is a centre for the publication of Islamic books and the translation of the Koran into foreign languages.

Several 'Islamic Movements' (especially the 'Jamaat al Islamiyah' [Islamic Associations]), were founded between the two World Wars. The best known of these, and probably one of the most influential throughout the world, is the 'Muslim Brotherhood' which many considered 'mainstream' and not 'extremist'. (5) Until now the 'Brotherhood' holds key positions in many of Egyptian trades unions and other organisations - see later in the article. The are about fifty 'Movements' of different sizes and influence which began to re-emerge after the Second World War.

From the 1950s until today, the 'Islamic Movements' have developed for several reasons. These include: a wish to free Egypt from the domination of foreign non-Muslim powers; Egypt's defeat in the June 1967 war and its consequences; Sadat's tolerance towards political parties in the1970s; the rise of 'Islamic Associations' in universities, the university authorities opposition to them and Sadat's attempt to diminish their influence in 1979; and the gradual secularisation of the country combined with the loss of Islam's influence. (6)

Since the 1970s the 'Movements' have gained a following across all areas of Egyptian society and have influenced the military and Government at regular intervals. Some of these 'Movements' are peaceful, following a rigorous religious life, while others preach violence in order to establish a pure 'Islamic State' incorporating the Shari'a law. These 'Movements' have other common elements such as: they reject Marxism, 'Zionism' (especially Israel), and Western Capitalism; and they are against the orthodox . The majority of them wish to move away from Egypt's secular society and some have even developed almost a parallel order to that of present day Egypt.

By the 1980s Muslim student organisations dominated campus life and greatly influenced university administration. Their membership numbers several hundred thousand, but those involved in underground activities and violence are only a few. There have been several Government crackdowns on the 'Movements' over the years and the extreme groups are constantly watched.

Another example of Islam's revival is the growth of Sufism from the 1970s. Sufism has been present in Egypt for many years and has developed much of its mystical side in the birthplace of Christian monasticism. It is not an 'extreme organisation' but throughout its history has been a movement of renewal within Islam. Sufism is found in many forms, and different countries, and has been an inspiration to those who have become involved in other 'Movements'. In Egypt Sufism has developed a great following among young professional men. (7) The Sufi Confraternities are very active and number about 120, with around six million members.

As we have seen the Coptic Church is accustomed to ill treatment from early Roman times, during its split from Rome, and through the various Islamic dynasties. Part of this was the selling of Copts into slavery, which removed most of the Christian population from the Nile Delta. Even today, Christians suffer discrimination in many ways, such as their exclusion from important positions in the Army, the Government and the Civil Service. A simple example of this is seen in the 'Hamayouni Edict' (1856) under which churches are not allowed to be built or repaired without the approval of the Head of State. This law was relaxed on the 28th. December, 1999, but still permission is needed from the Governor of the Province.

In rural areas it is often difficult to say if deaths are the result of 'family feuds/disputes' or the actions of 'Fundamentalists'. Most 'Fundamentalist' activity is in Upper Egypt - such as in the Miniah, Assiut, Sohag and Qena Regions - where the majority of Christians live. 'Extremist' groups have carried out terrorist attacks since 1992. They are usually against State institutions or tourists (Luxor, November, 1997, when 57 people were killed), but some have been against local Christians. Examples of the latter are: an attack in Abu Qorqas, Minya, in 1997 when twelve Christians were killed; in 1999 thirty people were killed at al-Kosh'h; and clashes at the beginning of 2000 in the Sohag Province when about twenty people were killed.

Over the years the Coptic Church has opposed the Government's wish to introduce various Islamic laws such as the amputation of hands and capital punishment. Under Shari'a law conversion from Islam to another religion is punishable by death - although this is not practised. There have also been cases when women were forced to convert to Islam. The Coptic Pope, Shenouda III, has continually protested to the Government about these and the terrorist incidents. This resulted in Sadat banishing him to internal exile in September, 1981. The then Government appointed five Bishops to administer the church and tried to have a new Pope elected, but the clergy would not agree. Mubarak eventually released Pope Shenouda III in 1985.

Not all is negative between Muslims and Christians in Egypt. There are examples of Muslim-Christian dialogue such as the 'Al-ikhaa ad-dini' Association at the Greek Catholic parish of St. Mary of Peace in Cairo. On an international level the Vatican and Al-Azhar have a 'Commission for Dialogue' which has met twice a year since 1998. We also often forget that Catholic, Copts and Muslims have co-operated, and even fought side by side for the Arab and Palestinian causes.

Many organisations regularly express concern about the human rights situation in Egypt. (8) This concern does not only apply to atrocities committed by 'Islamists', but also to Government activities. The Security Forces, including the local Police, are alleged to have been involved in 'extrajudicial killings'; deaths in custody; torture (in Cairo and Alexandria); and have had people 'disappeared' (though many of the 'disappeared' have later been found to be in prisons where they are not allowed to be visited by relatives). (9 & 10) Often the accusations of both torture and death in custody are not investigated and it is rare for the perpetrators to be brought to justice.

The Security Forces regularly conduct mass arrests and detain people without charge under the 'Emergency Law' of 1981, which still remains in force. (11) Once arrested the outcome can be uncertain. Prison conditions are poor and prisoners do not receive appropriate health care. (12) There are a high number of political detainees, though many have been released over the last few years.(13)

For some years now Egypt has asked different countries to return 'Islamic Extremists' to them. It is reported that alleged members of 'Jihad (Holy War) Group' have been extradited to Egypt from Albania, Azerbaijan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. In this connection it is believed that the United States and Egyptian intelligence and security agencies have been working together to combat 'Islamists' - especially those who have connections with Ossama bin Laden. (14 & 15) Some of the suspects have been tried in Military Courts where the verdicts can only be quashed or referred back to the courts by the President. Both local and international human rights organisations have questioned the use of such courts for the trial of civilians.

The 'Muslim Brothers' is still banned in Egypt but, according to Amnesty International, it is 'an organization that neither advocates nor condones violence', this can certainly be said about the mainstream non-violent majority within the 'Brotherhood'. (16 & 17) Despite this, alleged members of the 'Brotherhood' have been treated in the same way as 'Jihad'. In mid-2000 the Government targeted them in a crackdown. Reports say that this was timed for before elections to the board of Egypt's Bar Association on the 1st. July, in which the 'Brotherhood' plays a prominent role, and the General Election due to be held in November. Both the 'Brotherhood' and the 'Islamic Group of Egypt' have asked for dialogue with the Government, but it appears that such opportunities were rejected. (17, 18, 19 & 20)

The Government operates 'censorship' over the Media and activities of NGOs within the country. A Government license is required for the printing, and distribution of newspapers and this can be revoked by the Government's Higher Press Council. Foreign publications are subject to censorship by the Ministry of Information and journalists are often face court cases for articles that they write. All of this makes it difficult for the independent press to report on many issues. (21)

Some concern was attached to the Pope's visit to Egypt (25-26 February, 2000) at the invitation of President Mubarak. The worries were unfounded and the Pope covered the various delicate situations on the different levels of diplomacy: the Government (meeting the President); the Catholic (Latin) Church; the ecumenical (meeting the Coptic Pope [Shenouda III] other Christian Leaders); and the inter-religious (meeting the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar University [Sheik Mohamed Sayed Tantawi]).

(3) 'The 1971 Constitution stipulates in article two that "Islam is the State religion" and the "the principles of Islamic law are the main source of legislation." Article 40 and 46 affirm that the State guarantees freedom of belief and religious practice and that "all citizens are equal for the law...irrespective of race, origin, language, religion or belief".' ('International Fides Service', 18/02/2000) Return

(8) Organisations such as: Amnesty International, Committee to Protect Journalists, Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights, Human Rights Centre for the Assistance of Prisoners, Human Rights Watch, International Federation of Human Rights, Land Centre for Human Rights, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, U.S. Department of State, World Organization Against Torture. Return

(10) 'There are several security services in the Ministry of Interior, two of which are involved primarily in combating terrorism: The State Security Investigations Sector (SSIS), which conducts investigations and interrogates detainees; and the Central Security Force (CSF), which enforces curfews and bans on public demonstrations, and conducts paramilitary operations against terrorists. ... 'Human rights groups believe that the SSIS continues to employ torture. ... in SSIS offices ... and at [CSF] camps.' (USCR 1999) Return

(11) 'The Emergency Law allows authorities to detain an individual without charge. After 30 days, a detainee has the right to demand a court hearing to challenge the legality of the detention order and may resubmit his motion for a hearing at 1-month intervals thereafter. There is no maximum limit to the length of detention ... Human rights groups reported that hundreds, and according to one report, thousands, of persons detained under the Emergency Law have been incarcerated for several years without charge.' (USCR 1999) Return

(13) 'In April the Ministry of Interior reported that it had released 1,200 political detainees described as 'repentant extremists.' This group included persons who had served their sentences but had remained in detention, and persons who had never been charged or tried. The release brought the total number of detainees released in the past 2 years to more than 6,000. Following the releases, revised prison population estimates indicate that there are 10,000 prisoners who are registered and serving sentences and approximately 12,000 political detainees. ' (USCR 1999) Return

(17) 'Harassment and arbitrary arrest of known or suspected members of the non-violent but unauthorized Muslim Brotherhood also continued, possibly to weaken the influential group's ability to field independent candidates in the parliamentary elections scheduled for November 2000. As hundreds of suspected militant Islamists were released from prison, Muslim Brothers, including doctors, engineers, and teachers, were arrested, detained, and questioned by prosecutors throughout the year, typically suspected of membership in an illegal organization, possession of illegal leaflets, and attempting to reactivate the group by recruiting new members. In January, interior minister Habib el-Adli ruled out any role for the Brotherhood in the political system: "They are a banned group. They have no legal status and, hence, there will be no meetings or dialogue." ' (HRW 1999) Return

(18) 'On March 25, the clandestine Islamic Group issued a statement announcing that all of its cadres "inside and outside" the country would bring "armed operations" to a halt. In April, some 1,000 to 1,200 known or suspected Islamic Group members were reportedly released from prison, bringing to about 6,000 the number set free under Interior Minister Habib el-Adli, who assumed his post in November 1997.' (HRW 1999) Return

(19) 'The same month, Mustafa Mashur, the supreme guide of the Muslim Brotherhood, said that his beleaguered group sought a 'dialogue with the various parties to firmly oppose violence and terrorism and end extremism.' He argued that the state's 'lifting of limits on freedom of expression and political action would be the best way to fight against the deviant thought' of the armed militants. Suspected Muslim Brotherhood activists continued to be detained for membership in an illegal organization and 'possessing leaflets opposed to the regime.' ' (HRW 1999) Return

(20) 'In January, leaders of the Islamic Group held in Tora High Security prison reiterated their appeal, first made in July 1997, for a suspension of all attacks. In a handwritten statement, they challenged Islamic Group leaders abroad 'to issue a clear statement for an end to military activity.' ' (HRW 1999) Return

(21) The Committee to Protect Journalists (USA). Return

Sources - 'The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt' by Bill Manley; 'Egypt: A Country Study', Library of Congress; 'A Brief Review of Modern Egyptian History' by Dr. M. Trabia (University of Nevada Las Vagas, USA); 'The Grolier Multimedia Encyclopaedia, 1999'; 'Encyclopaedia Britannica'; 'Egypt', Lonely Planet, 1999; Lonely Planet Web Site; 'Egypt', The Rough Guide by Dan Richardson, 1997; 'The Times Atlas of World History'; 'The Catholic Encyclopaedia'; http://www.anthro.mankato.msus.edu/ prehistory/egypt/; The Coptic Network - WWW; 'The Coptic Encyclopaedia', edited by Aziz Sourial Atiya; 'Zenit'; 'Fides International'; 'World Churches Handbook; 'A History of Christianity' by Owen Chadwick; 'The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'; CIA Factbook; 'Country Reports on Human Rights Practices', U.S. Department of State; 'The New African YearBook'; 'Africa Review'; 'Makers of Modern Africa' (3rd. edition, 1996); 'Africa Today' (3rd. edition, 1996), 'Amnesty International' reports; 'Historical Dictionary of Islamic Fundamentalist Movements in the Arab World, Iran, and Turkey' by Ahmad S. Moussalli; 'National Geographic Atlas of the World'; '1999 Grolier Multimedia Encyclopaedia'; 'North-East Africa', Michelin (Map); 'Dorling Kindersley World Atlas'; UN-Relief Web; 'Dorling Kindersley World Reference Atlas'; 'Country Fact Files' on Egypt; World Bank reports; Human Rights Watch; APIC; Egyptian Tourist Authority pamphlets; Committee to Protect Journalists; UK. Hansard, 14th. June, 2000; 'The Foreign & Commonwealth Office; 'The Oxford History of Islam'; 'Islam Today' by Akbar S. Ahmed; 'Al-Ahram Weekly'; 'The Cairo Times; 'The Egyptian Gazette'; 'The Guardian'; 'The Independent'; Reuters; 'The Telegraph'; 'The Times'.

This article first appeared in "White Fathers - White Sisters" (UK), issue 354, of October-November, 2000.

The article may be published freely with due acknowledgements to the "White Fathers - White Sisters" magazine.

Foot Notes