D. R. Congo (formerly Zaïre)

This Page was last updated on the

28th February, 2007.

All information is checked as much as possible but events are not always easy to follow,

such as in the section ‘Rebel and Militia Groups Involved’.


President	Joseph Kabila. On 15th November 2006, the Independent Electoral Commission announced that Joseph Kabila had won 58.05% of the vote in the presidential election of 29th October. He was inaugurated on 6th December, 2006
Official Name	Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)(Republique Democratique du Congo)
Former Name	Congo Free State, Belgian Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo Leopoldville, Congo Kinshasa, Zaïre (area populated 10,000 years ago; settled by Bantus from present-day Nigeria in 7th and 8th centuries AD; Portuguese explorers [Diego Cao] in 1482; Henry Morton Stanley later; officially colonized [personal possession of Belgian King Leopold II] as Congo Free State in 1885; Belgian Government administration [renamed the Belgian Congo] took over in 1907; granted independence on 30 June 1960; Parliamentary elections [Patrice Lumumba became Prime Minister and Joseph Kasavubu President], country renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1960; Col. Joseph Mobutu seized power in November 1965 and changed the name of the country to Zaïre; in 1997 Laurent Kabila toppled the Mobutu regime and renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo [DROC].)
Capital	Kinshasa
Main Towns	Bandundu, Bukavu, Goma, Kananga, Kindu, Kinshasa (pop. 6.5 million), Kisangani, Lubumbashi, Matadi, Mbandaka, Mbuji-Mayi
Subdivisions	10 provinces: Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Equateur, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Katanga, Maniema, Nord-Kivu, Orientale, Sud-Kivu . 1 city: Kinshasa.
Independence	30 June 1960 (from Belgium)
Constitution	June 24, 1967; amended August 1974; revised February 15, 1978; amended April 1990; transitional constitution promulgated April 1994; Constitutional Act promulgated May 1997; draft constitution proposed but not finalized March 1998; transitional constitution adopted on April 2, 2003. A new constitution was passed by the transitional parliament on May 2005. It will now be up for approval through a national referendum at the end of 2005. To be implemented by July 2006.
National Holiday	Independence Day, 30 June (1960)
UN Membership	20 September 1960
OAU Membership	25 May 1963
Commonwealth	n/a
Other Organisations	In alphabetical order according to abbreviation/acronym: Agency for the French-Speaking Community (ACCT), Africa-Caribbean-Pacific-European Union (ACP-EU), African Development Bank (AfDB or AFDB), Central African States Economic Community (CEAC), Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (CEPGL), Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Group of 19 (G-19), Intergovernmental Group of 24 (G-24), Group of 77 at the United Nations (G-77), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), International Criminal Court (ICCt), International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (ICRM), International Development Association (IDA), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Finance Corporation (IFC), International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS), International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO), International Labour Organisation (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Maritime Organisation (IMO), International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), International Olympic Committee (IOC), International Organisation for Migration (IOM), International Telecommunications Union (ITU), Non Aligned Movement (NAM), Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW - signatory), Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), Southern African Development Community (SADC), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), Universal Postal Union (UPU), World Confederation of Labour (WCL), World Customs Organization (WCO, former Customs Cooperation Council [CCC]), World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU), World Health Organisation (WHO), World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), World Tourism Organisation (WToO), World Trade Organisation (WTrO).
Population	World Bank Figures: 48,278,260 (1999), 48,571,000 (2000), 50,052,788 (2001), 51,579,780 (2002), 53,153,360 (2003) Other Sources: 44,060,636 (July 1995), 53,624,718 (July 2001 est.) 56,625,039 (July 2003 est.) 60,085,804 (July 2005 est.)
Area	905,355 sq. mls. (2,344,858 sq. kms.)
Density	17 per sq.km. (1995), 57 people per sq. ml. (22 per sq. km.)(2000)
Highest Point	Margherita Peak (Mont Ngaliema or Mount Stanley) 16,763 ft. (5,109 m.)
Lowest Point	Atlantic Ocean - sea level
Neighbours	Angola (S), Burundi (E), Cabinda (W), Central African Republic (N), Congo (W), Rwanda (E), Sudan (NE), Tanzania (E), Uganda (E)
Life Expectancy	52 years (1995), total population: 48.94 years, male: 46.96 years, female: 50.98 years (2001 est.) total population: 48.93 years, male: 46.83 years, female: 51.09 years (2003 est.) total population: 49.35 years male: 47.29 years female: 51.47 years (2005 est.)
Infant Mortality Rate	total: 96.56 deaths/1,000 live births, female: 87.71 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.), male: 105.15 deaths/1,000 live births total: 92.87 deaths/1,000 live births male: 101.25 deaths/1,000 live births female: 84.23 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
HIV/AIDS	These estimates include all people with HIV infection, whether or not they have developed symptoms of AIDS, alive at the end of 2001: adults and children 1,300,000; adults (15-49) 1,100,000; adult rate 4.9%; women (15-49) 670,000; children (0-15) 170,000. Estimated number of adults and children who died of AIDS during 2001: 120,000 Estimated number of children who have lost their mother or father or both parents to AIDS and who were alive and under age 15 at the end of 2001: 930,000. From 1985 to 1999, the median HIV prevalence rate among antenatal clinic attendees in Kinshasa fluctuated between 3% and 7%. In 1999 5.4% of ANC attendees tested were HIV positive. Outside of Kinshasa studies conducted showed that HIV prevalence among antenatal women tested was between 3% and 4% (1988 to 1993). In 1997 HIV testing was conducted at 14 sites outside Kinshasha; about 4% of ANC attendees tested HIV positive with prevalence ranging from 0.4% to 6.3%. In Lubumbashi HIV prevalence rose from 2.7% (1989) to 8.5% (1999). Between 1985 and 1997, HIV prevalence among sex workers tested in Kinshasa fluctuated between 26.8% and 38%. A study conducted in Haute-Zaïre (1991) reported that 25.4% of sex workers tested were HIV positive. In 1997, 29% of sex workers tested in Mbuji-Mayi were HIV positive. In 1997, 12% of STI clinic patients tested in Kinshasa and 8% of STI clinic patients tested in Mbuji-May were HIV positive. AIDS cases by year of reporting: 440 (1986), 1988 (1987), 4,566 (1988), 5,609 (1989), 3,916 (1990), 4,482 (1991), 2,070 (1992), 4,215 (1993), 2,637 (1994), 8,329 (1995), 11,572 (1996), 9,642 (1997), 5,809 (1998), 9,953 (1999), 9848 (2000); total of 85,058. Date of last report: 22/11/2001. (The HIV/AIDS data is from the UNAIDS/WHO Epidemiological Fact Sheet 2002 Update) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: 1.1 million (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths: 100,000 (2003 est.) IRIN Plus News - HIV/AIDS Treatment Map: Democratic Republic of Congo - Updated: Sept 2004 Population: 51.2 million HIV Prevalence Rate (%) 2003 End: 5.07 No. Of People living with HIV/AIDS: 2,610,000 No. Of People in need of ART: 156,600 No. Of People Currently On ART (Sep 04): 3,000 No. Of People on ART Public Sector: Not Defined No. Of People on ART in Non Govt Programmes: Not Defined No. Of People Exptd to be on ART (2005 End): 19, 417 Front Line Drug Regimen: Triomune (Stavudine+Lamivudine+Nevirapine) HIV/AIDS Treatment Sites: 45 Global Fund 2 Year Approved Funding (Round 3: Approved 07-Sep-04): US$14,698,774.00 Total Funds Disbursed By The Global Fund: US$446,579.00 Total Funds Disbursed By The World Bank Multi-Country HIV/AIDS Programme (MAP): US$102 million Total Funds Disbursed By PEPFAR: Nil Source: WHO, UNAIDS, Ministry of Health
Adult Literacy Rate	66% (1985), total population: 77.3%, male: 86.6%, female: 67.7% (1995 est.) total population: 65.5%. male: 76.2%, female: 55.1% (2003 est.)
Ethnic Groups	More than 200 groups the majority are Bantu. 4 largest are Luba, Kongo, Mongo (Bantu), & the Mangbetu-Azande (Hamitic). Others include the Bwaka, Kwangu-Kwilu, Lunda, Tshokwe, Lulua, Ngala, Songe & Zande.
Languages	French (official), Lingala (a trade lingua franca), Kingwana (a Swahili dialect), Kikongo, Tshiluba
Religions	Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%, other syncretic sects and Traditional beliefs 10%
Type of Government	Republic - after presidential dictatorships over the last four decades seemingly the country is undergoing a transition to representative government; highly centralized with executive power vested in the president.
President	Joseph Kabila. On 15th November 2006, the Independent Electoral Commission announced that Joseph Kabila had won 58.05% of the vote in the presidential election of 29th October. On 27th November, the Supreme Court confirmed that he is the elected President. (Kabila had been the unelected president since 26 January 2001, having succeeded his father Laurent Desire Kabila after his assassination on 16 January 2001)
Prime Minister	Antoine Gizenga (since December 2006)
Political Parties	Democratic Social Christian Party (PDSC); Forces for Renovation for Union and Solidarity (FONUS); National Congolese Lumumbist Movement (MNC); Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR, 3 factions: MPR-Fait Prive, MPR/Vunduawe, andMPR/Mananga); Unified Lumumbast Party (PALU); Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS); Union of Federalists and Independent Republicans (UFERI, 2 factions: UFERI and UFERI/OR).
Ruling Party	---
Currency	Congolese franc (CDF) Congolese francs per US dollar - 401.04 (2004), 405.34 (2003), 346.49 (2002), 206.62 (2001), 21.82 (2000)
GDP	US$233 (1994) GDP: US$5.6 billion (2003) GDP: US$7.3 bn (2004 est.) purchasing power parity - $42.74 billion (2004 est.) per capita purchasing power parity - US$610 (2002 est.) per capita purchasing power parity - US$700 (2004 est.)
GNP	US$240 (1992)
Per Capita Income	GNI per capita: US$100 (World Bank 2002) Per capita GDP: US$98.65 (2003)
Population Below Poverty Line	NA%
Land Use	arable land: 2.96% permanent crops: 0.52% other: 96.52% (2001) Irrigated land: 110 sq km (1998 est.)
Natural Resources	cobalt, copper, niobium, tantalum, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, uranium, coal, hydropower, timber
Oil and Natural Gas	Oil production: 24,000 bbl/day (2001 est.) consumption:14,000 bbl/day (2001 est.) exports: NA (2001) imports: NA (2001) proved reserves: 1.538 billion bbl (1 January 2002) Natural gas - proved reserves: 104.8 billion cu m (1 January 2002) Pipelines: petroleum products 390 km Pipelines: gas 54 km; oil 71 km (2004)
Military	Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, Special Security Battalion Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 12,292,933 (2003 est.) males age 18-49: 11,052,696 (2005 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: US$250 million, 4.6% of GDP (FY97) US$93.5 million, 1.5% of GDP(2004)
Economic Aid Received	US$195.3 million (1995) Aid per Capita (World Bank): US$3 (1999), US$4 (2000), US$5 (2001), US$23 (2002), US$101 (2003)
Debt	Severely indebted (HIPC) World Bank Figures: US$10,946,899,968 (2000), US$10,610,299,904 (2001), US$8,401,999,872 (2002), US$7,560,000,000 (2003) Other Sources: US$10bn (1994) US$13bn (1998 est.) US$12.9 billion (2000 est.) US $8.211 billion (2002)
Major Imports	foodstuffs, mining and other machinery, transport equipment, fuels consumer goods (food, textiles), capital equipment, refined petroleum products (2002)
Imports from	South Africa 18.2%, Belgium 16.4%, Nigeria 11.8%, France 5.9%, Kenya, China (2000) E.U., China, South Africa, U.S. (2002) US$1.216 billion (2002) US$933 million f.o.b. (2002 est.) South Africa 18.5%, Belgium 15.6%, France 10.9%, US 6.2%, Germany 5.9%, Kenya 4.9% (2004)
Major Exports	diamonds, cobalt, copper, coffee, petroleum (2002)
Exports to	Belgium 59.7%, US 12.9%, Zimbabwe 7.4%, France 6.9%, South Africa, Finland, Italy (2000) E.U., Japan, South Africa, U.S., China (2002) US$1.040 billion (2002) US$1.417 billion f.o.b. (2002 est.) Belgium 42.5%, Finland 17.8%, Zimbabwe 12.2%, US 9.2%, China 6.5% (2004) Note: ‘Kivu has deposits of precious minerals used in leading-edge industries (electronics, aeronautics, nuclear medicine). These include niobium (15% of the world’s reserves are to be found in Africa, 80% of these in the Congo) and tantalum, associated with colombium and known locally as ‘coltan’ (Africa has 80% of the world reserves, of which 80% in the Congo).’ - ‘Carve-up in the Congo’ by Colette Braeckman, Le Monde diplomatique, Oct. 1999. ‘The Congo’s Centre for the Evaluation of Precious Stones reported the export of 27.1 million carats valued at US$642.74 million, in 2003.’ -‘DRC: Thousands of illegal diamond miners expelled’, IRIN, 30 Jan. 2004.
Internal - International Issues	The conflict in the Great Lakes region - involving various ethnic groups (Tutsi, Hutu, Lendu, Hema, and others), rebel groups, armed gangs etc. - has drawn in the government forces of neighbouring countries. It is a similar situation in the D.R. Congo with Uganda and Rwanda supporting the rebel movements that still occupy much of the eastern portion of the country. The heads of the Great Lakes states have pledged to end conflict, but localized violence continues despite UN peacekeeping efforts. In 1994 there was a huge influx of refugees into eastern D.R. Congo from the fighting in Burundi and after the genocide in Rwanda. President Mobutu Sese Seko, of the then Zaïre, gave sanctuary to the Rwandan Hutu refugees, including the Interahamwe, and members of the former Rwandan Government Army (ex-FAR) - the latter were given state support to carry out attacks into Rwanda. This aggravated the long-standing ethnic tensions with Banyamulenge (Congolese Tutsi) was the catalyst to begin the ‘ethnic’ conflict and ‘civil war’ that has been running since. In October 1996 Rwanda and Uganda launched the Alliance of Democratic Forces for Liberation (Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaire, AFDL), a rebel movement against President Mobutu that was under the leadership of Laurent-Désiré Kabila (1996-1997). Laurent Kabila led the Banyamulenge and other rebel groups in the AFDL and overcame the Zaïrean army and the Government of Mobutu. They entered Kinshasa on 17 May 1997 and Laurent Kabila declared himself President. Mobutu fled to Morocco where he later died. Up until mid-1998 Laurent Kabila and the AFDL had worked with Rwanda and Uganda but relations began to deteriorate. In late July 1998 all foreign troops were given a week to leave the D.R. Congo. The Kabila regime was then challenged by a Rwanda- and Uganda-backed rebellion in August 1998. The rebels seized major towns in the east of the country and Laurent Kabila asked for help and troops from Angola, Chad, Namibia, Sudan, and Zimbabwe who intervened in support. Chad withdrew its forces in late May 1999, by when the rebels controlled large areas in the north and east. Southern African Development Community (SADC) held a series of summit meetings chaired by President Chiluba of Zambia, that led to a settlement. In the ‘Lusaka Agreement’ a framework for national dialogue and reconciliation was agreed which layed the foundations for elections and a new constitution. On 10 July 1999 Angola, D.R. Congo, Namibia, Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, and various Congolese armed rebel groups signed a cease-fire agreement. This did not stop the conflict and sporadic fighting continued. In September 1999 the UN deployed a military liaison mission. This has been expanded since, as the United Nations Observer Mission to Congo (MONUC), to 550 military observers and up to 8,700 military personnel. The MONUC role is to verify and monitor the disengagement of conventional forces under the Lusaka agreement was authorised in February 2001. On 16 January 2001 President Laurent Kabila was assassinated by one of his bodyguards and his son Joseph Kabila was proclaimed head of state on 26 January 2001. Since taking power Joseph Kabila has made positive attempts to implement the ‘Lusaka Agreement’ and to improve his country’s situation. In July, 2002, the Governments of the D.R. Congo and Rwanda signed the Pretoria Agreement. This provided for the withdrawal of the Rwandan Defence Forces (RDF) from D.R. Congo territory, in return for the Disarmament, Demobilisation, Repatriation, Resettlement and Reintegration (DDRRR) of the ex-FAR/Interahamwe. The RDF finally withdrew from the D.R. Congo in October, 2002, and two months later Joseph Kabila was also successful in getting all remaining warring parties to sign an agreement to end the fighting and set up a government of national unity. His rival in the Presidential runoff of October 2006 was a vice-president, Jean-Pierre Bemba, a former rebel.
Rebel and Militia Groups Involved	There are many ‘Rebel/Militia Groups’ in the D.R. Congo. The majority are mainly active in, and control the areas of northern and eastern Congo bordering the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and along most of Lake Tanganyika. MONUC is gradually accepting the surrender of fighters from different groups and they are being integrated into the country’s existing structures and civilian life; they are also helping other combatants to be repatriated all under the Disarmament, Demobilisation, Repatriation, Resettlement and Reintegration (DDRRR) agreement. By the end of 2003 MONUC had assisted in the repatriation of 3,100 former Rwandan combatants. It is difficult to get detailed information about them as the situation is changing all the time. Some of the main groups are listed below. Allied Democratic Forces (ADF): is a Ugandan insurgent movement that has fought the Uganda government in south-western Uganda, from their bases in North Kivu over the border in the DRC. They first gained prominence in November 1996, when they attacked Kasese District, and make regular attacks against camps of the internally displaced, army detachments, schools and dispensaries in the Bundibugyo, Kasese, and Kabarole Districts. The ADF is made up of of Tabliq Muslim extremists, rebels from the National Army for the Liberation of Uganda, and soldiers from the former government forces of Rwanda and DRC (then Zaïre). Their aim is to overthrow President Museveni, whom they believe wants to establish a Tutsi empire in the Great Lakes region. The ADF is led by Jamil Makulu and is financed by the Salaf Muslim sect, based in Iran and Sudan, and the troops are mainly Muslims. Congolese Alliance for Democracy (RCD, Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie, Congolese for Democracy, Assembly of Congolese Democrats): a rebel movement launched in August 1998. Former Mobutu generals - Barimoto, Nzimbi and Mavhe - are alleged to have approached the opposition forces to unite against Kabila. They formed the Rassemblement des Congolais Démocrates (RCD, Assembly of Congolese Democrats), which is based in the Ivory Coast. The RCD is backed by Rwanda, in an attempt to overthrow President Laurent-Désiré Kabila. It is believed to have been backed by troops from Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda. Since its foundation it has split into 6 factions. Congolese Alliance for Democracy-Goma (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie–Goma, RCD-Goma or RCD-G): is faction of the RCD movement based in Goma. It estimated to have 17,000 and 20,000 fighters, commanded by disaffected Congolese officers, many of them Tutsi, and is backed by Rwanda. RCD-Goma formed an alliance to ‘cooperate and support each other mutually in the domains of politics, military, and economy’ with the UPC-RP (6 January, 2003). RCD-Goma appointed to its ranks 4 former army officers who had been condemned to death for the assassination of Laurent-Desire Kabila, including Bora Uzima Kamwanya, Georges Mirindi, John Bahati and Amuri Chap Chap (29 March 2003). Azarias Ruberwa Manywa, RCD-Goma secretary-general, is named as their candidate for the fourth vice-presidential post for a two-year national transition government. The three other candidates are: MLC leader Jean-Pierre Bemba; Abdoulaye Yerodia Ndombasi, a close ally Joseph Kabila; and Arthur Z’ahidi Ngoma, a representative of the unarmed political opposition (6 May, 2003). RCD-Goma announced it will rejoin negotiations on the formation of national transitional institutions in the DRC (30 May, 2003). Azarias Ruberwa is appointed leader of RCD-Goma, replacing Adolphe Onusumba Yemba. Ruberwa, one of four vice president-designates of a national transitional government, had previously served as RCD-Goma secretary-general, also since October 2000. Ruberwa is the fourth head of the RCD-Goma after Ernest Wamba dia Wamba, Emile Ilunga Kalambo and Onusumba, who were appointed to other functions within the movement. (16 June, 2003)Mayi-Mayi and RCD-Goma began reconciliation efforts in Burale, 60 km southeast of Bukavu in South Kivu Province (9 September, 2003). General Laurent Nkunda: see above in News Section. Congolese Alliance for Democracy-Kisangani (Rassemblement Congolais pour la Dé mocratie-Kisangani, RCD-Kisangani): a faction of the RCD movement formerly based in Kisangani. Followed Wamba dia Wamba when he split from the RCD-Goma in March 1999. On the verge of disappearing. New Forces of the Sacred Union (or Innovative Forces for Union and Solidarity, Forces Novatrices de l’Union Sacrée or Forces Innovatrices de l’Union et de Solidarité) is a political movement headed by Joseph Olenghahkoy (RCD-Kisangani). Congolese Alliance for Democracy-Kisangani-Liberation Movement (Rassemblement congolais pour la democratie-Kisangani-Mouvement de libération, RCD-K-ML): is a Ugandan-backed offshoot of RCD-Goma formed by Ernest Wamba dia Wamba, a university professor jailed by Mobutu, when he was kicked out as president of the main RCD movement in 1999. The situation of RCD-K-ML is complicated by power struggles within the rebel movement. It has about 2,500 fighters. Congolese Alliance for Democracy-National (Rassemblement congolais pour la democratie-National, RCD-N): emerged in 2002. It is led by Roger Lumbala and backed by Uganda and the MLC. RCD-N and MLC were accused of cannibalism by Monsignor Melchisedec Sikulu Paluku, the bishop of Beni-Butembo Diocese in northeastern D.R. Congo (7 January, 2003). Authorities in Kinshasa opened a judicial inquiry into massacres and cannibalism alleged to have been carried out by the MLC and RCD-N, in Orientale Province (27 January, 2003). Congolese Alliance for Democracy-Original (Rassemblement congolais pour la democratie -Originale, RCD-O ): emerged in 2002. It is led by Felix Mumbere and backed by Uganda. Democratic Liberation Forces of Rwanda (Forces Democratiques de Libération du Rwanda, FDLR): A voluntary return to Rwanda of 103 FDLR members, including FDLR leader Paul Rwarakabije, after almost a decade in the D.R. Congo took place on 15 November, 2003. On February 2006, clashes with the Congolese Army began, ending with the Army declaring South Kivu free of rebels by 8th March 2006. Force for the Defense of Democracy (Forces de la Défense de la Démocratie, FDD): Burundian rebels who supported Kabila. Their forces are split between the D.R. Congo and the Tanzanian refugee camps. 16,000 combatants. 11 Congolese civilians were murdered near Baraka, in South Kivu Province, allegedly by fighters belonging to an alliance of the FDD; ex-FAR; and Mai-Mai in the area (24 July, 2003). Front des Nationalistes Integrationnistes (FNI): The FNI, mainly Hema, and the UPC agree to allow the free circulation of people and goods in the region (23 September, 2003). Their leader, Peter Karim was appointed colonel in the National Army: he is active in the region of Nioka. On 29th November 2006, the FNI agreed to disarm, stop disturbing the peace in exchange for an amnesty. In February 2007, five militiamen of the FNI were convicted of murdering UN peacekeepers Major Saswat Oran (Jordanian) and Captain David Banda (Malawian) on 13th May 2003. They were convicted by a military court and sentenced to life imprisonment. Another man was sentenced to twenty years hard labour and one man aquitted. At the end of February, the FNI was reported to be starting to disarm by IRIN, the UN news agency. Mai-Mai (Mayi-Mayi): Mai-Mai warriors are groups of indigenous to North and South Kivu in eastern Congo. The official name of Dunia’s Mai-Mai is Forces d’Autodéfense Populaire (FAP). The groups are not linked and are of shifting loyalties, though most of them were pro-Laurent Kabila and fight alongside the Hutu. They are the warlords of the ungovernable eastern Congo. The number of combatants is unknown. An estimated 8,000 Mai-Mai militiamen, accused of cannibalism, were disarmed in the Haut Lomami District, southern Katanga Province (7 February, 2003). The Mayi-Mayi and RCD-Goma began reconciliation efforts in Burale, southeast of Bukavu in South Kivu Province (9 September, 2003). 2,000 people associated with Mai-Mai militias are demobilised in Kindu, eastern DRC, to either return to civilian life or to be integrated into the national army (22 November, 2003). The Mai-Mai - Editor’s Note from White Fathers – White Sisters magazine, issue 376, June-July, 2004. The Mai-Mai (Mayi-Mayi) is the main militia group fighting in the North and South Kivu, and Katanga regions of eastern D.R. Congo. They have their roots in the ‘Mulele Rebellion’ of 1964, led by Pierre Mulele, which tried to topple President Mobutu. The ‘Rebellion’ broke out around Kikwit, in Bandundu province, and the Mai-Mai were launched later that year in the east. The Mai-Mai is not a single entity but a collection of different factions under various commanders. The fighters come from various ethnic groups such as the Banande, Batembo, Banyaga and Hunde. Over the years the Mai-Mai have changed their allegiance to achieve local aims. During the war that brought President Laurent Désiré Kabila to power (1996-97), they fought beside the Banyamulenge (Congolese Tutsis) against the Rwandese Interahamwe militias and Rwandan Government Forces (ex-FAR). Also 10,000-25,000 Mai-Mai youth joined the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaïre (ADFL) at this time, but kept their own identity and afterwards returned to North Kivu. The Mai-Mai do not wage an organised guerrilla war, or have clear political objectives. The fighters carry out small-scale attacks on: the Rwandan Army, the Rassemblement congolais pour la democratie (RCD, Congolese Rally for Democracy), and the local population, especially the Banyamulenge, to terrorise them and to obtain provisions and the manpower. The Mai-Mai militias, alongside the Interahamwe and ex-FAR troops, direct hate speech and violence against the Banyamulenge, estimated to number 150,000, who have been in North Kivu for over two hundred years, but the Congolese authorities question their citizenship. This was a key issue in the 1996-97 war after which Laurent Kabila, their one time ally, promoted the ethnic tension. The Mai-Mai have committed many human rights abuses which include: murder, rape and cannibalism - the latter was reported when the fighters, including children, ate the hearts of enemies in order to stop their souls going to heaven. It is impossible to know the number of people killed, wounded and displaced due to Mai-Mai activity. Members of the Mai-Mai promote the myth that they are invulnerable thanks to magic water (‘Mai’) that protects them from bullets. Vines, leaves or grass around their heads are supposed to make them invisible. The myths have helped to entice recruits, especially children, but older recruits are drawn partly due to the lack social and economic opportunities and by the promise of weapons, a better life, ethnic solidarity, and wealth. All the groups and countries that have been active have taken advantage of the country’s wealth. The Mai-Mai exploit deposits of gold, diamonds and coltan (a mineral used in mobile phones). It is suggest that some business and political leaders in North Kivu exaggerate the strength of the Mai-Mai so as to keep the region in chaos, giving them the opportunity to exploit the natural resources. The Mai-Mai were not party to the 1999 Lusaka Peace Agreement but take part in the process of building the D.R. Congo’s future. Discussions were held between them and the Congolese Rally for Democracy-Goma (RCD-Goma) and it is believed that Mai-Mai fighters have been integrated into their force. Further talks took place in an attempt to incorporate members of RCD-Goma and Mai-Mai into a new police force. The United Nations Observer Mission to Congo (MONUC) are gradually gathering Mai-Mai forces ready for demobilisation, integration into the D.R. Congo’s national army, and retraining the former combatants, including children. Movement for the Liberation of Congo (Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo, MLC): reported to be founded in Equateur province in November, 1998. Is led by Jean-Pierre Bemba, son of leading businessman Bemba Saolona who was close to ex-president Mobutu, and backed by Uganda (whose soldiers used to occupy all the territory they hold) with between 6,500 and 9,000 fighters. RCD-N and MLC were accused of cannibalism by Monsignor Melchisedec Sikulu Paluku, the bishop of Beni-Butembo Diocese in northeastern D.R. Congo (7 January, 2003). Authorities in Kinshasa opened a judicial inquiry into massacres and cannibalism alleged to have been carried out by the MLC and RCD-N, in Orientale Province. (27 January, 2003). Bemba is now a Vice President of D.R of Congo. National Liberation Force (Forces nationales de libération, FNL): Burundian rebels allegedly kill at least a 12 people - mainly women and children - in Rusabagi, 85 km south of Bukavu in South Kivu Province (24 August, 2003). Patriotic Army of the Congo (APC): emerged in the Ituri Region in 2002. It is Lendu-dominated and supported by the RCD/ML. Rwandan Liberation Army (AliR, Armée de Libération du Rwanda): this is an umbrella title for the Hutu rebel groups composed of ex-Rwandan Armed Forces (Rwandan ancien régime or former Forces Armées Rwandaises, ex-FAR), Interahamwe, Hutu Militias and recruits gained since then. The Interahamwe militia, alongside the ex-FAR government forces, took part in the 1994 genocide in which they killed an estimated 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu in Rwanda. After being defeated by the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), now in power in Rwanda, in the same year, the Interahamwe / ex-FAR fled to around Goma, Rutshuru and Masisi in North Kivu. In 1996 hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees returned to Rwanda and amongst the genuine ones were many Interahamwe and ex-FAR. An estimated 15,000 armed and trained Interahamwe / ex-FAR still retain their bases in the Masisi area of North Kivu, DRC, and carry out cross border raids on villages, hospitals and schools. It has been claimed by Rwanda and Uganda that they were trained by Laurent Kabila and Zimbabwe. They are believed to have a training camp near Bibwe, that attracts recruits from Rwanda, and Rwandan refugees in Tanzania, Uganda, Congo-Brazzaville and the Central African Republic. They are also believed to be around the Mbuji-Mayi diamond mines. Estimates of Hutu Militias numbers vary from between 5,000 and 25,000. The Interahamwe / ex-FAR in North Kivu destabilise the security and have engaged local ethnic groups, the Bahunde, the Nande, the Batembo, and the Mayi-Mayi, they have mobilised around an anti-Tutsi theme. Ex-FAR officers living abroad are co-ordinating fundraising, arms procurement, and diplomatic contacts to keep the Rwandan insurgency alive. Senior officers, including Colonel Renzaho, Colonel Thaici Gasarabwe, and Lieutenant Colonel Alphonse Nteziryayo, are reported to live in South Africa. The AliR involved in the Rwandan Hutu rebellion from 1997-2000 and are believed to have between 30,000 and 40,000 fighters. Over 16,000 ex-FAR, who remained in Rwanda or returned since 1994, have been reintegrated into the new Rwandan Defence Forces (RDF), or demobilised. MONUC estimates that 12-15,000 ex-FAR/Interahamwe remain in D.R. Congo (November, 2003). About 1000 have been repatriated to Rwanda under the DDRRR terms and the Pretoria Agreement. Union of Congolese Patriots-Reconciliation and Peace (Union des patriotes congolais pour la reconciliation et la paix, UPC-RP): emerged in the Ituri Region in 2002 and is based in Bunia. It is Hema-dominated, led by Tomas Lubanga and supported by Uganda and Rwanda. UPC, based in Bunia, signs an accord with the UPDF (2 March, 2003). The UPDF and allied Lendu and Ngiti militiamen ousted the UPC from Bunia (6 March, 2003). UPC took control of Bunia after 6 days of fighting between rival ethnic militias (12 May, 2003). FNI and the UPC agreed to allow the free circulation of people and goods in the region (23 September, 2003). Their leader, Thomas Lubanga, is currently under arrest and will be tried by the Internationl Court in the Hague.
Neighbouring Countries involved	Angola: In 1997, after the fall of Mobutu, Angolan troops went into the D.R. Congo mainly to attack the UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, led by Jonas Savimbi) bases in the in southern D.R. Congo that had been backed by the Mobutu government. At one time they had between 2,000 and 2,500 soldiers in the D.R. Congo. Burundi: admitted to having soldiers in the D.R. Congo to fight its own Hutu rebels – having the same Hutu and Tutsi division as Rwanda - who have been in civil war since 1983. The situation worsened when the Burundi government pushed 300,000 people, mainly Hutu, into ‘regroupment camps’ in the hills around Bujumbura. At this time refugees went into D.R. Congo and Tanzania. Burundi had about 2,000 soldiers involved. Namibia: became involved in the D.R. Congo in mid-1998, in support of Angola, and in December 1998 allowed Angolans to fight from Namibian soil. There were between 1,600 and 2,000 Namibia soldiers involved. Rwanda: For Rwanda the main problem began in 1994 when hundreds of thousands of Hutu fled into D.R. Congo fearing retribution after the genocide they committed in Rwanda. The extremists then began attacking Rwanda from D.R. Congo. The Rwandan government sent in troops to curb the Hutu militia and were supported by Uganda who joined them to curb its own rebels based in D.R. Congo. In 1996 the Rwandan government and Uganda attempted to end the attacks by supporting Laurent Kabila. Once Kabila came to power he distanced himself from Rwanda, and they accused him of allying himself with Hutu fighters. In August 1998 both Rwanda and Uganda began to support the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RDC), and other rebel groups, to start another rebellion. Northwestern Rwanda, which is a Hutu extremist stronghold, has been quiet since Rwanda invaded D.R. Congo. The Rwandan Defence Forces (RDF) withdrew from the D.R. Congo in October 2002. It is believed that there had been between 17,000 and 25,000 soldiers in the D.R. Congo. Sudan: has reportedly helped Laurent Kabila on various occasions, such as the bombing of towns in rebel zones in northern Congo in 1999. Tanzania: Tanzania’s involvement in the war has been mainly as a haven for the hundreds of thousands of Hutu who have fled there from Burundi, Rwanda and the Congo since 1994. Uganda: Uganda has been accused of having between 8,000 and 10,000 soldiers in D.R. Congo, who were involved in taking diamonds, gold, timber and ivory out of the country. Uganda backs two of the main rebel groups, the Movement for the Liberation of Congo, in the northwest, and the Rally for Democracy. The Uganda People’s Defence Force (UPDF) signed an accord with the UPC on 2 March, 2003. The UPDF and allied Lendu and Ngiti militiamen ousted the UPC from Bunia on 6 March, 2003. The UPDF agreed to withdraw from the D.R. Congo by 24 April, 2003. Zambia: Former Presidents Kenneth Kaunda and Frederick Chiluba have acted as peace brokers in the wars of the region since the independence struggles to the peace deals in Angola and the D.R. Congo. Zimbabwe: It is estimated that President Mugabe sent between 7,000 and 11,000 troops to the D.R. Congo to support Laurent Kabila. It has been said that Mugabe’s motivation for this is that he wanted to be a major player in Southern Africa and to gain access to the D.R. Congo’s wealth, such as the diamond mines that were then under the control of Laurent Kabila. It is believed that Zimbabwian generals have growin rich exploiting Congolese timber, gold, diamonds and metals. This military involvement was unpopular with Zimbabwians, and its costs were concealed from international donors and the International Monetary Fund.
Results of the Conflict	People: The International Rescue Committee (IRC) reported (8 April, 2003) that conflict in the D.R. Congo has cost more lives than any other since World War II. The IRC estimates that at least 3.3 million Congolese have died between August 1998 and November 2002. In the Ituri inter-ethnic war alone more than 50,000 people have lost their lives since July 1999. Most deaths are due to treatable diseases and malnutrition, and were often linked to displacement and the collapse of the country’s health services and economy. Hundreds of thousands have been uprooted from their homes and now are both internally displaced people (1.8 million IDPs, 2003 est.) and refugees (300,000, 2003 est.) in neighbouring countries. Wildlife: has often been poached from the game reserves for food. A WWF census (28 August, 2003) found a 95% decline in the hippopotamus population in Virunga National Park, on the eastern border of the D.R. Congo, once home to the world’s largest hippo population. Economy: all the militia groups and countries that have been involved have plundered the D.R. Congo’s mineral wealth.
Some Agreements and Disagreements of 2003	The Pygmies from the Ituri District of Province Orientale in northeastern DRC demand that the Kinshasa government create a criminal tribunal to hold accountable those who have committed crimes against them, including murder and cannibalism (25 January, 2003). Delegates of the Ugandan and DRC governments, different rebel groups, and ethnic militias operating in Ituri sign the Ituri Cessation of Hostilities Agreement in Bunia, under which the UPDF is to withdraw from the DRC on 24 April. The UPC, however, does not sign. (18 March, 2003) RCD-Goma captures Lubero, North Kivu Province, as a ceasefire deal for the region is signed in Bujumbura among all parties to the conflict: RCD-Goma, the Kinshasa government and the RCD-Kisangani/Mouvement de libération (RCD-K/ML) to which Kinshasa is allied. (19 June, 2003) Transitional government officials designated by the DRC’s two principal former rebel movements - RCD-Goma and the MLC - refuse to take the oath of office because it included swearing allegiance to President Joseph Kabila (18 July, 2003). RCD-Goma and MLC transitional government officials take their oath of office in Kinshasa, after a modification is made in the pledge of allegiance (24 July, 2003). RCD-Goma says it is willing to make concessions regarding the partition of responsibilities for newly-created military regions (1 August, 2003). Controversy over military leader nominees resolved as RCD-Goma submits a revised list of candidates for top military posts; the previous list of candidates proposed by RCD-Goma provoked an outcry from Kabila and other members of the former Kinshasa government, as well as from the International Committee to Accompany the Transition (known by its French acronym CIAT) because of its inclusion of individuals suspected of involvement in the assassination of late president Laurent-Desire Kabila, Joseph’s father, on 16 January 2001. (18 August, 2003) Kabila names officers to lead the nation’s unified national military, incorporating elements from all former armed rebel groups signatory to a national power-sharing accord, as well as Mayi-Mayi militias (19 August, 2003). Installation of leaders of DRC’s unified national military is postponed. Although no official reason is given, military sources says that some officers from the RCD-Goma former rebel movement, now party to a power-sharing national transitional government, have not yet arrived in Kinshasa. (1 September, 2003) Military officials and members of parliament of RCD-Goma demand a general amnesty and security guarantees before reporting to Kinshasa (17 September, 2003). Former rebel groups now party to the two-year power-sharing government of national unity are authorised to function as political parties while awaiting such a law to be enacted by the National Assembly (29 September, 2003). An agreement to cease hostilities between forces of Gen David Padiri Bulenda’s Mayi-Mayi militia and the RCD-Goma former rebel movement - both now parties to the national power-sharing government - is signed in Shabunda, South Kivu Province. The accord calls for an immediate ceasefire, the free circulation of persons and goods, and the creation of a follow-up commission comprising three members from each of the two sides to monitor implementation of the agreement. (1 October, 2003) Ituri militias agree to the cantonment of their forces, a promise they have made on previous occasions (9 October, 2003). Government says it will no longer tolerate the presence on its national territory of elements of the Rwandan former army (ex-FAR) and Rwandan Hutu former militias (Interahamwe) who fled their country into neighbouring DRC after playing a major role in the 1994 Rwandan genocide (16 October, 2003). Following several weeks of being denied access to RCD-Goma-controlled military camps in North Kivu, which it hoped would enable verification of the alleged presence of Rwandan troops on DRC territory, MONUC is granted access by North Kivu Governor Eugene Serufuli (29 October, 2003). (Source for ‘Some Agreements and Disagreements of 2003’: ‘NAIROBI, 5 January (IRIN) - A selected chronology of events in the Democratic Republic of the Congo during 2003’, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Integrated Regional Information Network (IRIN)

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The White Fathers, Sutton Coldfield, 28 February, 2007

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